Though in my introduction to this book I said I had assumed an elementary knowledge of dairy farming, there are some observations of fundamental importance, which are not to be found in the many books to which the beginner will turn for guidance. They fall into no special category of herdsmanship, but I think they are worth sharing in this short chapter, with those who are quite new to dairy herd management and with those experienced dairy farmers and herdsmen who may not hitherto have considered them of importance. Some are original; some have been acquired from men more experienced than I; others have been suggested to me by my own workers; all, though apparently elementary, are worth consideration, if the efficiency and health of the herd are to be maintained.
Stocking the Cow or Heifer
The right age to serve a heifer and the right stage of oestrum at which to put either a heifer or a cow to bull, are matters for conjecture among all breeders, novice or expert. Even the experts vary in their pronouncements on the subject.
Theoretically the optimum age for a heifer to be served is the stage shortly after a marked natural decelleration of growth takes place and the sexual characteristics noticeably develop. One would expect this stage to coincide with the start of oestrum, in other words at puberty. No doubt under natural conditions this is so, and the heifer accepts the bull at one of her first 'heats'. The optimum period for the most profitable milk yield is probably rather later. It varies with the breed and it varies with the strains within the breed. But in my experience of the pure dairy breeds it comes somewhere between the ages of fifteen and eighteen months.
If nutrition in the first six months of life has been adequate, it is probably right to serve the pure dairy heifer about midway through the third six months of life—at about fifteen months old. Invariably if service is left until twenty months or so, subsequent lifetime milk production suffers, not only in the longer period of unproductive life, but in the lower annual yield once production has started.
There is a point at which the heifer's system has completed normal growth and diverts the food which is in excess of maintenance requirements, either to putting on flesh or producing milk. If this point is passed without the animal having started milk production, the process of conversion of foodstuffs into body flesh and fat commences, and for some obscure reason it is not easy to change it back to a process of conversion to milk. The ideal, then, is for the birth of the calf to coincide with this change in the emphasis of metabolism, and in my experience this point comes at about two years of age in the normally developed dairy female.
The optimum stage of oestrum at which the actual service should take place is unlikely ever to be known by man, though it may well be guessed at. Artificial insemination stations are carrying on experiments which will produce some theoretical data on this subject. But the truth of the matter, in my opinion, is likely to remain for ever a secret between the bull and the cow. The ideal way of achieving insemination, under optimum conditions therefore, is to run the bull with the heifers or cows. This system has many objections in the commercial herd, because of difficulties of observing and recording all services. But it has the advantage of certainty, especially with heifers, which cannot always be seen to be 'bulling'. I remember in the early days of my cattle breeding, I ran a bull with ten heifers from November to the time they turned out to grass, from the yard in which they were wintered.
I did not see one of these heifers served nor did I see one 'bulling'. I assumed that they were suffering from some complaint which prevented them from coming on heat. I called in a veterinary surgeon during the spring and asked if he could do anything to bring the heifers on heat so that I could get them served. He examined them, decided they were not in calf, though it was in any case difficult to be sure, but as I had not seen a single one of them on heat he injected them with a hormone to bring them on heat. Every one of them proved to have been in calf to December and January services. The effect of the injection was to cause most of them to abort the calves they were carrying. The bull had done his job at the right time, and neither he nor the heifers had thought it necessary to give me any information about their relationship!
I would not have got any one of those heifers in calf had the bull not run with them. Since then I have always run a bull with my heifers and though they are closely observed every day a large proportion of them are served when the bull thinks fit, without our knowledge.
The nearest approach to this ideal system that can be achieved in the milking herd, is to allow the bulls to spend several hours with the cows they are to serve. In spite of the growing practice and insistent claims of artificial insemination, I believe the period of play between the cow and the bull has some useful purpose other than the pleasure of the animals themselves, just as the contact of male and female at the time of service has some object other than mere insemination. If nature had intended this contact for no other purpose than the insemination of the female, she would have made the cow bi-sexual as is the case with some other species. The fact is that the play period, and the actual contact at service, stimulates the secretion of hormones, probably as yet unidentified by man, which have an essential function in the perfect union of male and female and the ultimate success of the pregnancy and parturition, and may be even the eventual health and productive ability of the progeny.
Dual or Single-Purpose Breeds
Perhaps the greatest problem to the farmer contemplating pedigree breeding for the first time is the eternal controversy of the breeds 'having your cake and eating it', or in other words the duel of the dual and single-purpose breeds. The emphasis on beef production which Government price manipulation has recently given, has provided a new lease of life to the fallacy that it pays better to produce milk from animals that are themselves capable of fattening when the profitable milking life is ended, and which give a bull calf that is worth £5 instead of 30s. or which can be reared for beef. Nobody who ever sat down to think this question out ever remained seated for long without kicking himself hard out of it for ever entertaining a doubt. The merest child knows that a cow that can produce a fat carcass at the end of her milking life, carries costly flesh every year of her milking life and robs the foodstuffs bin to do it. Furthermore, it is difficult enough breeding for one characteristic—milk or beef—but it is impossible to breed for both. And no one can forecast in the average dual-purpose herd, which the newly born calf is to be best for, until it has done at least one lactation, by which time considerable loss may already have occurred. But let me illustrate this argument by some official figures.
In Appendix IV of The Milch Cow in England(Faber), E. R. Cochrane gives the average yields of full year recorded cows as follows, in relation to liveweight (1936-7 averages).
Yield F.C. Liveweight Yields per 1,000 lb. Liveweight lb. Ayrshire 1,050 7,487 6,925 Friesian 1,300 9,167 6,300 Guernsey 915 6,805 7,625 Jersey 825 6,575 9,250 Red Poll 1,150 6,310 5,965 Lincoln Red 1,350 5,385 5,150 Shorthorn 1,250 5,715 5,395
Thus calculating on official National Average yields of 4 per cent fat-corrected milk per 1,000 lb. liveweight, that if the Jersey is 100 per cent efficient in production, the breeds are efficient in the following percentages:
per cent Jersey 100 Guernsey 82-1/2 Ayrshire 75 Friesian 68 Red Poll 64-1/2 Shorthorn 58 Lincoln Red 56
On 1951 yields the Red Polls and Shorthorns have shown a 15 per cent yield increase over 1936-7 compared with 10 per cent in the Jersey and Ayrshire average, and 1 per cent only in the Friesian breed; but this still leaves the dual-purpose cow only 65 per cent efficient compared with my single-purpose Jersey.
Assuming the height of efficiency for a cow's production to be £150 a year we find therefore that 6 years' milk production for a Jersey equals £900; 6 years' milk production for a dual-purpose cow £585,—a deficit of £315 a cow in a very modest milking life. It is an impossible margin for the dual-purpose animal to make good by means of the greater value of the dual-purpose bull calves and the cow's own carcass at the end of her milking life. I should like the dual-purpose advocate to show me how this deficit is to be made up, even with to-day's weighting of prices in favour of beef production. And I would urge the beginner who is tempted to take an each-way bet on a dual purpose breed, to be sure he knows how it can be done before he starts herdsmanship with a certain leakage of 35 per cent efficiency from the start. It won't take many years of 35 per cent leakage to run away with 100 per cent of the capital of even the best-breeched beginner.
Calving
Don't assist the cow until it is clear that she needs it.
As soon as the calf is born see that it can, and does, breathe freely. If it appears normal nothing need be done. If not, open the mouth and remove any mucus. Take one jaw in each hand, hold them apart and blow sharply down the throat. This will clear the throat, cause the calf to gasp and take air into the lungs which has to be exhaled—thus breathing will commence if it has not already done so. Repeat this blowing down the throat several times until the calf is breathing. Artificial respiration may be applied by gentle pressure on the ribs of the chest—at the same time rubbing the calf vigorously all over to stimulate circulation.
Then leave the calf to be licked by the cow.
The calf should find its own food after an hour or two. Draw the cow's teats to free the flow of milk and see that the teats are easily capable of being drawn from by the calf. If after about six hours the calf has not been seen to suckle the cow some assistance should be given.
For the first forty-eight hours after the cow calves take no more milk from the cow than is necessary for the calf, and to relieve pressure in the udder.
The cow will need little or no food for twenty-four hours. A bran mash, made with molasses, will help in case of constipation which sometimes precedes or follows calving, especially where concentrated feeding has been given. Water should be available as and when the cow needs it.
The cow may be allowed to eat all but the coarsest and most fibrous of the placenta if she wishes. It provides valuable hormones which she may need. Leave the decision as to whether she needs them to the cow herself. But watch that she doesn't choke.
Getting a Cow out of a Ditch
As one who has farmed for twelve years surrounded by Somerset rhines (the deep, wide ditches which intersect and drain the flat lowlands of Somerset) I write with feeling about getting a cow out of a ditch. I hadn't been in Somerset long before I had to learn from one of my men how to fish for cows!
The fixed loop of a strong cart-rope around the neck should be attached to a point on a cart, trailer or tractor, well above the bank of the ditch, so that when the rope is strained the tendency is for the rope to raise the head. Clear the bank with a spade if necessary so that there are no obstacles. Move the horse or tractor away slowly, seeing that the cow is moving smoothly up the bank. A slow steady pull will get her out without damage. There is no risk of a broken neck. A cow's neck is the best place to attach a rope in pulling her out of a hole of any kind—never the horns, which would break off.
In pulling a horse, on the other hand, attach the rope around the shoulders and under the front legs—never around the neck which, unlike the cow's, will break.
The Bull
Enough has been said in recent years condemning the old-fashioned methods of bull management. The basic needs of the bull are now catered for by all thoughtful farmers. Yet I still see bulls tied in the darkest corner of the cowshed, throughout the four seasons of the year, by farmers who are governed by panic in the presence of a bull, and the belief that the most valuable animal on the farm can be kept under control only if he is subdued by fear. Only a few years ago I met a farmer who, each time he returned his Shorthorn bull from serving a cow, beat him with a stick and tied him up in his dark corner again, 'just to show him who was boss'. The bull did not dispute the farmer's demonstration of superiority for some years, for he was always tied by the chain round his neck and the ring in his nose, while it was performed. But one day he managed to slip his chain for the only few minutes' freedom of his life, and the farmer now carries a permanent reminder in the shape of a crippled hip, as to who eventually proved to be boss.
The first essential for a bull is ample exercise. A bull which is handled daily from calfhood will rarely become difficult to manage. It is false economy of the worst type to miss the bull's daily walk, especially nowadays when machinery is so depriving the cowman of his exercise! For the health and happiness of the bull and for the good of the herdsman a 15 or 20 minutes' walk on a hard road (to keep the feet in good trim) is the finest medicine on the farm.
In housing the bull, provide him with a clear view of activity. He is, unlike the herdsman, not given to daydreams about fair damsels, his imagination extends only to the heifer in his eye, so let him see her and he will trust you to bring her to him when his services are needed. But if he is confined out of sight of the rest of the herd, the day may well come when he loses interest in his work.
Ringing a Young Bull
It is the law that all bulls of 10 months of age and over must have a ring through the nose. As ten months is the age to get him licensed by the Ministry of Agriculture Livestock Officer, he need not be rung until he is licensed for use. The bull ring is hinged and may be opened for insertion through the thin membrane between the two nostrils. An ordinary steel (as used for sharpening carving knives) may be jabbed through the nose at that point with only momentary pain for the young bull, and hardly any bleeding. The steel makes a cleaner hole, through which the ring can be passed, closed and screwed together, than a sharp instrument.
Leading a Bull
The best way to lead a bull is from a chain which runs up through the ring and is clipped with a spring hook to a strap around the base of the two horns. This gives all the control that is possible for one man, and if he holds the chain close to the head the leverage from the horns to the nose, when the chain is pulled backwards, will halt or steady the bull, unless his nose has been allowed to toughen by tying or leading direct from the nose ring. Direct attachment to the ring should be avoided as it toughens the nose and deadens control. Whilst the nose remains tender, control of the bull is complete. Use of a pole, which we discarded many years ago, has the effect of toughening the nose and the bull may then jerk it out of the man's hand.
Where two men are leading the bull, even better control may be maintained with two chains on straps from the head or horn strap down through the ring and out horizontally to a man on either side.
This is the ideal way of parading a bull in the show ring. He can be led on a straight course with his head exactly at the desired level, by keeping the leads taut. If the bull tends to move in the wrong direction he may be checked by a pull from the man on the other side, yet his movement in that direction is limited by the other man. When leading the bull at a show it is easier for the judge to examine him when the men walk at the end of each lead, well away from the bull.
Some Words Explained
Some expressions in common usage among herdsmen and cattle breeders in talking of their cattle are not self-explanatory and need elaborating for the novice.
QUALITY. Fine bone, thin skin, bright colour and the general appearance which go to make up the superior fineness of a thoroughbred horse, or a Jersey cow, compared with coarse breeds of either species.
TYPE. A word which has come into use to cover all the requirements of conformation and character, as distinct from known productive ability, and accepted by each breed society as the ideal of its breed.
CONSTITUTION, is a combination of all the factors which make for health and ability to withstand, indeed to enjoy, hard work, as evidenced in a strong symmetrical body with large heart, lung and stomach capacity, wide ribs, deep body, especially chest, supported by firm, squarely placed legs.
SPRING OF RIB. The spring refers to the angle at which the ribs are offset from the backbone. Ribs offset at a wide angle from the backbone leave large capacity for the internal organs, especially stomachs, of the body. This is called good spring of rib.
SPRINGING. The freshening signs of imminent calving. A cow or heifer is said to be 'springing' to calve when the udder begins to enlarge, the vulva softens and enlarges, and the barrel shows the width and fullness of advanced pregnancy.
BARREL, is the term used to describe the trunk of the cow or the barrel-shaped portion of the body between the shoulders and the hips.
ESCUTCHEON, the reversed hair covering on the skin between the udder and the vulva (the portion of the cow's generative organs visible externally). A Frenchman, F. Guenon, expounded a theory which claimed to estimate a cow's productive ability from the pattern made by the escutcheon hair. (See Guenon's Theory of the Escutcheon in his book, Milch Cows, published by Orange Judd, Publishing Co., Inc., New York.)
TOPLINE. The line from the shoulder to the tail setting along the centre of the animal's back. Ideally it should be horizontally straight. Any rise or fall in the line as viewed from the side of the cow (standing back a few yards) is indicative of a weakness.
SWITCH. The long hair at the end of the tail.
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